Lesson plan for class 8

LESSON PLAN…1….

CLASS:-   7                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO DESCRIBE THE INTERNAL

STRUCTURE OF LEAF

1.     Opening:

1.1.  Assessing Previous Knowledge

1.1.1.   What are the different parts of a plant which we can see?

1.1.2.   Which part of plant below air in different seasons?

1.1.3.   Draw a shape of leaf with some wains and ask about the shape.

1.1.4.   Through which part a plant prepares its food?

1.1.5.   Through which plant food is transported to other parts?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1. In plants, leaves are the major site of photosynthesis.

2.2. They are often referred as food factories of nature.

2.3. A leaf is made up of many layers those are sandwiched between two layers i.e. the upper epidermis and lower epidermis.

2.4. The upper epidermis is covered by waxy cuticle which reduce evaporation from the upper surface and lower epidermis has stomata pores for exchange of gases.

2.5. Palisade mesophyll cells are tightly packed elongated cells where most food production takes place

2.6. Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed with large intercellular spaces, where the exchange of gases take place more efficiently. Conducting tissues consist of xylem and phloem. Xylem transport water and minerals and phloem transport food to other parts of plant

3.     Activities:

3.1.   Display a chart showing a diagram of the internal structure of a leaf.

3.2. Now explain the parts of the internal section of a leaf as shown on the chart and explain the function of each part.

3.3. During the activity, ask the students to observe the chart of the internal structure of leaf and draw it on their notebooks.

3.4. Draw the internal structure of leaf on board and explain the role of stomata, mesophyll tissues, xylem, phloem and cuticle.

3.5. Provide time to read the diagram on boar as well as on book.

4.     Assessment:

Ask the students one by one to label the diagram on board.

5.      Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work

LESSON PLAN…2….

CLASS:-   7                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE

AND PROCESS OF RESPIRATION IN PLANTS.

1.      Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      I will inhale air and release it, then ask the students what I did?

1.1.2.      Without which process living organisms will die in short time?

1.1.3.      Tell the name of process in which glucose breaks and release energy?  

2.      Introduction to new material:

2.1.   Like all other organisms, plants require oxygen for getting energy from food.

2.2.   They also require to release extra carbon dioxide from their bodies.

2.3.   During day time plants utilize the carbon dioxide (produced during respiration) in photosynthesis and for respiration, they utilize the oxygen produce during photosynthesis.

2.4.   Plants do not have specialized breathing mechanism for gaseous exchange like animals.

3.      Activities:

3.1.   How the chemical energy stored in food molecules is made available for life process? (Expected response: by chemical reactions)

3.2.   Inform the students that these chemical reactions are collectively called respiration.

3.3.   Will ask about the chemical reaction oxygen + Glucose à carbon dioxide + water

Discussion

4.      Assessment:

4.1.   What is the purpose of respiration?

4.2.   What is the energy released in respiration used for?

4.3.   In contrast to photosynthesis, why respiration in plants continues during day and night.

5.      Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…3….

CLASS:-   7                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE

PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION IN PLANTS.

1.     Opening:

1.1. Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      From which source we get our food?

1.1.2.      How plants prepare its food?

1.1.3.      For what we need food?

1.1.4.      To do work what we need?

1.1.5.      From where we get that energy?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   Respiration is quite the opposite of photosynthesis.

2.2.   Photosynthesis is a constructive process in which the organisms absorb energy and gain weight.

2.3.   Photosynthesis is localized only to the green parts of the plants during day time while respiration occurs both, during night and day in all living cells of an organism.

2.4.   Photosynthesis is a non-continuous process that depends mainly on solar energy while respiration is a continuous process that does not depends on solar energy.

2.5.   Flow chart for Photosynthesis and respiration process.

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Differences of these two processes and write in a table on board.

3.2.  Ask students to write on notebook and read carefully.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.   What do plants take from the air and give to the air when they respire?

4.2. What do plants take from the air and give to the air during photosynthesis?

4.3. Why it is advised not to sleep under trees at night?

4.4. Why are the plants called “Lungs of the nature”

5.     Closing:

5.1.    Carbon dioxide  +  Water   à  Glucose + oxygen

5.2.   Glucose + oxygen à  carbon dioxide + water

5.3.   Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…4….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND ABOUT THE

          NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ITS MAJOR FUNCTION.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.       How do you feel changes?

1.1.2.      How do you feel touch?

1.1.3.      How do you pull your feet while it gets injured?

1.1.4.      How do you think and perform tasks?

1.1.5.      What type of system is acting to perform tasks?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   The nervous system is a mean by which quick coordination among the various parts of the body is carried out.

2.2.   Nervous system consolidates information of stimuli, comprehend it and formulate the type of response to be produce.

2.3.   A system which control the function of other systems is nervous system.

2.4.   A system of messages and coordination among different parts of body is nervous system.

2.5.   A system which feel changes and react for that is nervous system.

2.6.   EXAMPLES:

2.6.1.      When you feel thirst, you react to drink water.

2.6.2.      When you touch a hot surface, you react to contract and prevent body from that.

2.6.3.       

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Sudden throw of paper ball toward students and explain reaction.

3.2. Sudden touch of a pin node and explain reaction.

3.3. Ask the students to write different actions taken by nervous system.

3.4. Draw a flow chart on board to explain the parts of nervous system.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.   What is the role of brain in the body?

4.2.   Where the spinal cord is present in your body?

4.3.   Which system is working for messages and action control?

5.     Closing:

5.1.  Nervous system is the brain, spinal cord and nerves in the body

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…5….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-  STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN REFLEX ACTION

          WITH AN EXAMPLE.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS THEY HAVE EXPERIENCED.

1.     Opening:

1.2.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.2.1.       How do you feel changes?

1.2.2.      How do you feel touch?

1.2.3.      How do you pull your feet while it gets injured?

1.2.4.      How do you think and perform tasks?

1.2.5.      What type of system is acting to perform tasks?

2.     Introduction to new material:

5.2.   The nervous system is a mean by which quick coordination among the various parts of the body is carried out.

5.3.   Nervous system consolidates information of stimuli, comprehend it and formulate the type of response to be produce.

5.4.   A system which control the function of other systems is nervous system.

5.5.   A system of messages and coordination among different parts of body is nervous system.

5.6.   A system which feel changes and react for that is nervous system.

5.7.   EXAMPLES:

5.7.1.      When you feel thirst, you react to drink water.

5.7.2.      When you touch a hot surface, you react to contract and prevent body from that.

5.7.3.       

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Sudden throw of paper ball toward students and explain reaction.

3.2. Sudden touch of a pin node and explain reaction.

3.3. Ask the students to write different actions taken by nervous system.

3.4. Draw a flow chart on board to explain the parts of nervous system.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.   What is the role of brain in the body?

4.2.   Where the spinal cord is present in your body?

4.3.   Which system is working for messages and action control?

5.     Closing:

5.1.  Nervous system is the brain, spinal cord and nerves in the body

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…6….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND PROCESS OF CELL

            DIVISION. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS.

1.     Opening:

5.2.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

5.2.1.      Recall the knowledge about the cell and reproduction.

5.2.2.      Let them think that why there is a need of cell division?

5.2.3.      Introduce the term cell division” by flow diagram.

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   The ability to reproduce is a characteristic of living things.

2.2.   Cellular reproduction is commonly referred as cell division and it is a part of the whole life of a cell i.e cell cycle.

2.3.   Production of copies of cells is cell division.

2.4.   There are two types of cell divisions. Meiosis and Mitosis.

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Draw a table of differences of meiosis and mitosis.

3.2.  Ask the following questions to enhance their learning:

3.2.1.      If the parent cell having 24 chromosomes undergoes mitosis then how many chromosomes will be present in daughter cells?

3.2.2.      If there is some cut in your body which division heals it?

3.2.3.      The diagram below shows a lizard in various stages of regeneration of its tail.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.   Draw a diagram to show a type of cell division which produces daughter cells just like the parent cell, also name the diagram.

4.2.   Draw a diagram to show a type of cell division which produces daughter cells with only half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, also name the diagram.

5.     Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…7….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-  STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN REFLEX ACTION

          WITH AN EXAMPLE.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS THEY HAVE EXPERIENCED.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.       How do you feel changes?

1.1.2.      How do you feel touch?

1.1.3.      How do you pull your feet while it gets injured?

1.1.4.      How do you think and perform tasks?

1.1.5.      What type of system is acting to perform tasks?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   The nervous system is a mean by which quick coordination among the various parts of the body is carried out.

2.2.   Nervous system consolidates information of stimuli, comprehend it and formulate the type of response to be produce.

2.3.   A system which control the function of other systems is nervous system.

2.4.   A system of messages and coordination among different parts of body is nervous system.

2.5.   A system which feel changes and react for that is nervous system.

2.6.   EXAMPLES:

2.6.1.      When you feel thirst, you react to drink water.

2.6.2.      When you touch a hot surface, you react to contract and prevent body from that.

2.6.3.       

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Sudden throw of paper ball toward students and explain reaction.

3.2. Sudden touch of a pin node and explain reaction.

3.3. Ask the students to write different actions taken by nervous system.

3.4. Draw a flow chart on board to explain the parts of nervous system.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.   What is the role of brain in the body?

4.2.   Where the spinal cord is present in your body?

4.3.   Which system is working for messages and action control?

5.     Closing:

5.1.  Nervous system is the brain, spinal cord and nerves in the body

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…8….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-  STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO DEFINE BIOTECHNOLOGY.

1.     Opening:

a.      Assessing Previous Knowledge:

                                                              i.       How we get yogurt from milk?

                                                            ii.      How we increase the production of grains?

                                                          iii.      What is technology?

                                                          iv.      For what purpose we need technology?

                                                            v.      Can we use living organisms for benefit of human being?

2.     Introduction to new material:

a.       Biotechnology is a large-scale industrial use of biological processes of microorganisms to make substances useful for mankind.

b.      Brainstorm the students about asking different questions:

                                                              i.      What they know about microorganisms?

                                                            ii.      How they are useful for the mankind? (Expected response: They are used in making yogurt, cake, bread, milk, meat and medicines.)

c.       Now introduce them the today's topic “Biotechnology and its application” in which they will learn, how the scientists use the microorganisms to make products for human use.

d.      Different biotechnological products are Insulin, bear, high yielding crops, golden rice, bio degradation bacteria.

3.     Activities:

a.        Discuss each other about different biotechnologies you know.

b.      Ask different students what they get about biotechnology?

c.       Write the name of technologies they told.

d.      Tell the students to write on notebook.

4.     Assessment:

a.       Can you guess, how this insulin is prepared on commercial basis for the use of diabetic persons?

b.      Can you know how vaccine is produced?

5.     Closing:

                                                              i.      Biotechnology is a large scale industrial use of biological processes of microorganisms to make substances useful for mankind e.g. making of yogurt, cake, bread, and medicine etc.

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…9….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL KNOW ABOUT DNA REPLICATION.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      What is DNA?

1.1.2.      Where DNA is present?

1.1.3.      What type of material is called DNA?

1.1.4.      Can DNA produce its copy?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   DNA is the genetic material.

2.2.   Its control the inheritance of an individual.

2.3.   Along with the cell division DNA also produce its copy

2.4.   DNA along with protein is called chromosome.

2.5.   The process of producing copy of DNA is called DNA replication.

2.6.   Explanation of different steps of DNA replication.

3.     Activities:

3.1.   Draw each step of DNA replication on board.

3.2. Ask the students about each step.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.1.      What is DNA?

4.1.2.      Where DNA is present?

4.1.3.      What type of material is called DNA?

4.1.4.      Can DNA produce its copy?

4.1.5.      What are the different steps of DNA replication?

5.     Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…10….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-  STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO LIST GENERAL APPLICATION

OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN VARIOUS FIELDS.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      What they know about microorganisms?

1.1.2.      How they are useful for the mankind? (Expected response: They are used in making yogurt, cake, bread, milk, meat and medicines.)

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   Now introduce them the today's topic “Biotechnology and its application” in which they will learn, how the scientists use the microorganisms in order to make products for human use.

3.     Activities:

3.1.   Arrange the warm water, flour and yeast.

3.2.   Ask the students to:

3.2.1.      Mix the yeast with the flour, and add warm water to make dough.

3.2.2.      Leave it for 20 minutes.

3.2.3.      Then ask the students to observe this dough carefully and tell:

3.2.4.      What is the change?

3.2.5.      What may be the cause of this change?

4.     Assessment:

4.1.   Ask the students to write the names of the products in front of process of biotechnology given in the table.

5.     Closing:

5.1. Revising main point and assign home work.

5.2.   Make a list of biotechnology products.

5.3.   Guide the students to solve the exercise problems given at the end of  unit / chapter of textbook.

LESSON PLAN…11….

CLASS:-   7                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN DNA, GENE AND CHROMOSOME.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      What is nucleus?

1.1.2.      What is present in neucleus?

1.1.3.      By which material chromosomes are made of?

1.1.4.      What are the functions of a gene?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   Chromosomes are small thread like structure found in the nucleus of the cell which control the characteristics of living organisms.

2.2.   DNA is called the hereditary material because it is capable of self replication and is transferred from one generation to other.

2.3.   Genes are the unit of inheritance and these are the short lengths of DNA in chromosomes.

3.     Activities:

3.1. Ask the students to write the answers of the following questions.

3.1.1.      What is inheritance?

3.1.2.      What is called as the genetic material?

3.1.3.      Where the genes are located?

4.     Assessment:

5.     Closing:

5.1.   Summarize the lesson as; chromosomes are thin thread like structures present in the nucleus of the cell. Chromosomes are made of DNA. Genes are the unit of inheritance which transfer characters to the next generation. DNA is capable of self replication.

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…12….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE SOURCES,

PROPERTIES AND HARMFUL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      What do you mean by pollution?

1.1.2.      Do you know about the different types of pollution?

1.1.3.      What are the causes of pollution?

1.1.4.      What are the effects of pollution on our health and environment?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.   Pollution is a process through which harmful substances are added to the environment and these harmful substances are called pollutants. Presence of these substances in air is called air pollution.

2.2.   Air pollution is mainly caused by dust, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons and ozone

2.3.   Air pollution damages or deflies the environment, making it undesirable or unfit for life.

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Write different name of pollutants and ask students the type of pollution caused by them.

3.2. Ask them to write on notebook.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.1.      What do you mean by pollution?

4.1.2.      Do you know about the different types of pollution?

4.1.3.      What are the causes of pollution?

4.1.4.      What are the effects of pollution on our health and environment?

5.     Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…13….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE STRUCTURE OF

NEPHRON

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      What is excretory system?

1.1.2.      What is kidney ?

1.1.3.      What is the basic structural unit of

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.  Explanation about kidney.

2.2.  Explain different structural parts of kidney.

2.3. Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of kidney.

2.4. It is divided into two parts. Renal carpsel and renal tubules.

2.5. Explain these two parts.

3.     Activities:

3.1.  Draw a diagram and ask students to help in labelling.

3.2. Ask them to draw and label on notebook.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.  What is glomerulus?

4.2. What is proximal tubules?

4.3. What is loop of Henley?

4.4. What is collecting duct?   

5.     Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…14….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO USE DIFFERENT MEASURING DEVICES TO MEASURE THINGS.

1.     Opening:

1.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

1.1.1.      What are the names of the device which measure the length?

1.1.2.      What is the name of the device used to measure the liquid?

1.1.3.      By which mean we measure the mass?

2.     Introduction to new material:

2.1.  We can say that the distance between two points is called length and we use different devices to measure that distance. The standardized device which used as standard is meter role.

2.2. Liquid has no specific shape. Liquid adopt the shape of the crucible. To measure the quantity of liquid measuring cylinder is used with different sizes. It ranges from 250 ml- 1000 ml(1L)

2.3. The quantity of matter is called mass. To measure mass weighing balance is used.  

3.     Activities:

3.1.   Divide students into groups and ask them to measure the length, volume and mass one by one.

4.     Assessment:

4.1.1.      What are the names of the device which measure the length?

4.1.2.      What is the name of the device used to measure the liquid?

4.1.3.      By which mean we measure the mass?

5.     Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…15….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO MEASURE LENGTH, VOLUME OF LIQUID AND MASS

6.     Opening:

6.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

6.1.1.      What are the names of the device which measure the length?

6.1.2.      What is the name of the device used to measure the liquid?

6.1.3.      By which mean we measure the mass?

7.     Introduction to new material:

7.1.  We can say that the distance between two points is called length and we use different devices to measure that distance. The standardized device which used as standard is meter role.

7.2. Liquid has no specific shape. Liquid adopt the shape of the crucible. To measure the quantity of liquid measuring cylinder is used with different sizes. It ranges from 250 ml- 1000 ml(1L)

7.3. The quantity of matter is called mass. To measure mass weighing balance is used.  

8.     Activities:

8.1.   Divide students into groups and ask them to measure the length, volume and mass one by one.

9.     Assessment:

9.1.1.      What are the names of the device which measure the length?

9.1.2.      What is the name of the device used to measure the liquid?

9.1.3.      By which mean we measure the mass?

10. Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…16….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE FUNCTION OF

NEPHRON

6.     Opening:

6.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

6.1.1.      What is excretory system?

6.1.2.      What is kidney ?

6.1.3.      What is the basic structural unit of

7.     Introduction to new material:

7.1.  Explanation about kidney.

7.2.  Explain different structural parts of kidney.

7.3. Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of kidney.

7.4. It is divided into two parts. Renal carpsel and renal tubules.

7.5. Explain these two parts.

8.     Activities:

8.1.  Draw a diagram and ask students to help in labelling.

8.2. Ask them to draw and label on notebook.

9.     Assessment:

9.1.  What is glomerulus?

9.2. What is proximal tubules?

9.3. What is loop of Henley?

9.4. What is collecting duct?   

10. Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…17….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:- STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN ABOUT THE AIR

POLLUTANTS.

6.     Opening:

6.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

6.1.1.      What do you mean by pollution?

6.1.2.      Do you know about the different types of pollution?

6.1.3.      What are the causes of pollution?

6.1.4.      What are the effects of pollution on our health and environment?

7.     Introduction to new material:

7.1.   Pollution is a process through which harmful substances are added to the environment and these harmful substances are called pollutants. Presence of these substances in air is called air pollution.

7.2.   Air pollution is mainly caused by dust, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons and ozone

7.3.   Air pollution damages or deflies the environment, making it undesirable or unfit for life.

8.     Activities:

8.1.  Write different name of pollutants and ask students the type of pollution caused by them.

8.2. Ask them to write on notebook.

9.     Assessment:

9.1.1.      What do you mean by pollution?

9.1.2.      Do you know about the different types of pollution?

9.1.3.      What are the causes of pollution?

9.1.4.      What are the effects of pollution on our health and environment?

10. Closing:

Revising main point and assign home work.

LESSON PLAN…18….

CLASS:-   8                                                          DATE:………………

SLO:-  STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF

BIOTECHNOLOGY IN VARIOUS FIELDS.

6.     Opening:

6.1.   Assessing Previous Knowledge:

6.1.1.      What they know about microorganisms?

6.1.2.      How they are useful for the mankind? (Expected response: They are used in making yogurt, cake, bread, milk, meat and medicines.)

7.     Introduction to new material:

7.1.   Now introduce them the today's topic “Biotechnology and its application” in which they will learn, how the scientists use the microorganisms in order to make products for human use.

8.     Activities:

8.1.   Arrange the warm water, flour and yeast.

8.2.   Ask the students to:

8.2.1.      Mix the yeast with the flour, and add warm water to make dough.

8.2.2.      Leave it for 20 minutes.

8.2.3.      Then ask the students to observe this dough carefully and tell:

8.2.4.      What is the change?

8.2.5.      What may be the cause of this change?

9.     Assessment:

9.1.   Ask the students to write the names of the products in front of process of biotechnology given in the table.

10. Closing:

10.1.                  Revising main point and assign home work.

10.2.                    Make a list of biotechnology products.

10.3.                    Guide the students to solve the exercise problems given at the end of  unit / chapter of textbook.